[Aztlan] CHARLES MANN'S SCIENCE JOURNAL ARTICLE ON THE AMAZON

[michael ruggeri]

Listeros,

Charles Mann has provided us his Science Journal article on the  
Amazon urban settlements. Here it is. Thanks to Charles for sending  
this on to us.

Mike Ruggeri


Alceu Ranzi was a geography student in
1977 when he helped discover half a dozen
huge, prehistoric rings carved into the landscape
in his home state of Acre in western
Brazil. At the time,
he was helping to
conduct the f irstever
full archaeological
survey of Amazonia,
which was
being opened up for
cattle ranches at a
speed that was causing
worldwide protests. The earthworks
came to light on newly logged land.
The find attracted little attention. The
Smithsonian-sponsored National Program of
Archaeological Research in the Amazon
Basin did not formally announce the rings
for 11 years, and even then only in a littleread
report. And Ranzi, who went on to
become a respected paleontologist, most
recently at the Federal University of Acre in
Rio Branco, didn’t get back to studying the
ditches until more than a decade after that.
On a flight to Rio Branco in 1999, he spotted
the earthworks again from the air and soon
began looking for more. Within a year, he
says, “we had found dozens more” of what he
calls geoglyphs.
Shaped like circles, diamonds, hexagons,
and interlocking rectangles, the geoglyphs
are 100 to 350 meters in diameter and outlined
by trenches 1 to 7 meters deep. Many
are approached by broad earthen avenues,
some of them 50 meters wide and up to a
kilometer long. The geoglyphs “are as
important as the Nazca lines,” Ranzi says,
referring to the famed, mysterious figures
outlined in stone on the Peruvian coast. But
even though the Acre geoglyphs had been
observed 20 years before, “nobody still knew
anything about them.”
Today, Ranzi co-leads a research team with
Martti Pärssinen of the University of Helsinki
and Denise Schaan of the Universidade Federal
do Pará in Belém. More than 150 geoglyphs
have been identified in Acre and the
adjoining states of Amazonas and Rondônia—
a figure, Pärssinen believes, that represents
“less than 10%” of the total; indeed, on a
recent overflight with a Science reporter,
Schaan and Ranzi spotted
three more. So far, the sole
published carbon date
suggests that the Acre geoglyphs
were constructed
relatively recently, in
about 1250 C.E. And their
purpose remains unclear.
Nonetheless, Schaan says,
enough is known to be
sure that they are “very
difficult to fit in with what
we thought in the past.”
For most of the last
century, researchers believed
that the western
Amazon’s harsh conditions,
poor soils, and relative
lack of protein (in the
form of land mammals)
precluded the development of large, sophisticated
societies. According to the conventional
view, the small native groups that eked
out a living in the region were concentrated
around the seasonally flooded river valleys,
which had better soil; the few exceptions
were short-lived extensions of Andean societies.
Meanwhile, the upland and headwaters
areas—which include nearly all of western
Amazonia—had been almost empty of
humankind and its works.
Yet during the past 2 decades, archaeologists,
geographers, soil scientists, geneticists,
and ecologists have accumulated evidence
that, as the geoglyphs team puts it, the
western Amazon was inhabited “for hundreds
of years” by “sizable, regionally
organized populations”—in both the valleys
and the uplands. The geoglyphs, the most
recent and dramatic discovery, seem to
extend across an area of about 1000 kilometers
(km) from the Brazilian states of Acre
and Rondônia in the north to the Bolivian
departments of Pando and the Beni in the
south (see map, p.1150). Much of this area is
also covered by other, older forms of earthworks
that seemingly date as far back as
2500 B.C.E.: raised fields, channel-like
1148 29 AUGUST 2008 VOL 321 SCIENCE www.sciencemag.org
NEWSFOCUS
Ancient Earthmovers
Of the Amazon
CREDIT: C. C. MANN
The forested western Amazon was once thought barren of complex
human culture. But researchers are now uncovering enigmatic earthworks
left by large, organized societies that once lived and farmed here
Farsighted. Brazilian researchers Denise Schaan and Alceu Ranzi believe
fewer than 10% of the region’s geoglyphs have been found.
Online
Hear author
Charles C. Mann
discuss the earthworks
left by the early
Amazonians.
sciencemag.org
Published by AAAS
Downloaded from www.sciencemag.org on August 29, 2008
canals, tall settlement mounds, fish weirs,
circular pools, and long, raised causeways
(Science, 4 February 2000, p. 786), suggesting
the presence of several cultures over a
long period. And on page 1214 of this issue
of Science, a U.S.-Brazilian team proposes
that indigenous people in the south-central
Amazon, 1400 km from Acre, lived in dense
settlements in a form of early urbanism and
created ditches and earthen walls that some
say resemble the geoglyphs (see sidebar).
Researchers are still puzzling over
whether and how these earthworks f it
together and what they reveal about the people
who created them. But already the implications
of these enormous endeavors are
clear, says Clark Erickson, a University of
Pennsylvania researcher who has been working
in the area with Bolivian colleagues since
1995. Far from being trapped by the Amazon’s
ecological obstacles, he says, these
large populations systematically transformed
the landscapes around them. One example:
Because geoglyphs cannot readily be constructed
or even seen in wooded areas, the
researchers argue that people must have made
them at a time when the region had little tree
cover—meaning that in the not-too-distant
past the great forests of the western Amazon
may have been considerably smaller.
Not only did the peoples of western Amazon
alter their environments, but they also
transformed the biota in them. Emerging
evidence suggests that this little-known
region may have been a place where longago
farmers first bred some of the world’s
most important crops. In Erickson’s view,
western Amazonia serves as a model of how
human beings create and maintain productive
landscapes from even the most apparently
limited environments.
The new findings show that the region
was “a cosmopolitan crossroads” between
the societies of the eastern Amazon and the
Andes, of whom the most famous were the
Inka, says Susanna Hecht, a geographer at
the University of California, Los Angeles:
“You have every language group in lowland
South America represented there.” She adds,
“It was a major cultural center—and it’s
incredible that this is just coming out.”
Counterfeit paradise, or a real one?
Archaeologists once regarded Amazonia as
unpromising terrain. Clearing the forests for
agriculture risks destroying fragile tropical
soils by exposing them to the tropics’punishing
heat and rain, a contention that lay at the
heart of Smithsonian archaeologist Betty
Meggers’s Amazonia: Man and Culture in a
Counterfeit Paradise (2nd ed., 1996), probably
the most influential book written about
the area. Meggers reasoned that in consequence,
settlements could not long survive
with conventional farming; she once suggested
that the river basin’s ecological constraints
limited maximum village size to
about 1000 people. In addition, those people
would have left little behind, because Amazonia
has little stone or metal. As a result,
“99% of material culture was perishable,”
Erickson says. “Cane, chonta [palm wood],
bones, baskets, wood—none of it survives
these conditions.” Except for pottery, “the
whole culture, even if it was there for thousands
of years, seems to be gone.”
“In the Andes, the societies are easy to
see,” says Sergio Calla, a student at the Universidad
Mayor de San Andrés in La Paz who
works with Erickson. “There is no forest covering
up their traces. Also, they could build
in stone, which is rare here. But this region is
just as rich culturally. We just have to look
harder and smarter.”
www.sciencemag.org SCIENCE VOL 321 29 AUGUST 2008 1149
CREDIT: C. C. MANN
Squared off. The Fazenda
Atlântica geoglyph in Acre
is 250 meters on a side.
NEWSFOCUS
Published by AAAS
Downloaded from www.sciencemag.org on August 29, 2008
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NEWSFOCUS
Looking smarter, in Erickson’s view,
means going beyond archaeology’s traditional
focus on the individual site to entire
landscapes. “What Amazonian peoples did
in constructing/building environments was
more visible and permanent at a regional
scale than at the site scale,” he argues. To
study at this scale, archaeologists are adopting
new methods, from soil chemistry to network
theory.
The Beni in Bolivia, where Erickson’s
team focuses its efforts, is an example.
Exceptionally low and flat, much of the
department is covered for up to 4 months of
the year by a slowly moving wash of water—
snowmelt from the Andes and heavy local
rainfall—that is typically 30 to 100 centimeters
deep. During the dry season, the water
evaporates and the Beni becomes a hot, arid
savanna, kept open by annual burning. In the
low areas, early inhabitants avoided the flood
by using natural knolls known as islas and by
constructing thousands of lomas (mounds
typically 1 to 5 hectares) as dwelling places.
Most lomas were small—artificial hummocks
barely above the water—but a small
percentage were up to 18 meters in height.
Some are still inhabited by native groups.
Living on this artificial inland archipelago,
Amazonian peoples ate a diet heavy in
fish, which migrate and spawn in the flooded
savannas. Today, as Erickson discovered in
2000, networks of earthen fish weirs still
crisscross a 500-square-kilometer area in the
grassland. These low, interconnected berms
change direction, zigzag-style, every 10 to
30 meters. At the angles are funnel-like
openings for nets or traps. Built as early as
the 13th century, they fell into disuse only in
the 18th century. “Think of it as aquaculture,”
Erickson says. “The weirs allowed
people to manage and harvest the catch.”
When the waters receded, the area’s early
inhabitants ensured that they drained into
hundreds of artificial fish ponds. Typically
about 30 meters across, they are often full of
fish today.
Agriculture was just as intensive. In a
broad, 50,000-square-kilometer swath of
savanna around the mounds, the Beni’s
indigenous peoples built raised fields—
artificial platforms of soil that lift crops above
the floodwaters, according to research by
geographer William Denevan, a professor
emeritus at the University of Wisconsin,
Madison, who in 1963 was one of the first to
call attention to them. Like raised beds in temperate-
zone gardens, the mounds promote
drainage and increase the amount of topsoil.
 From the few carbon dates available, Erickson
says, “we see raised fields coming in and out
of production from 3000 B.P. to 500 B.P.”—or
until roughly the time the conquistadors
arrived, bringing diseases that wiped out
much of the native population. “Like any agricultural
fields, these were not used forever.
They go in and out of production, which suggests
to me a long-term but dynamic system.”
Because the mounds, weirs, and f ields
required enormous labor to construct and
maintain, Erickson believes these societies
must have had large populations—“tens or
even hundreds of thousands of people.” Some
early Jesuit accounts back this view.
To move people and goods around, Indians
built networks of ruler-straight causeways and
canals, some of them as long as 7 km.
Puzzlingly, the causeways and canals are common
near raised fields but not around settlement
mounds. To make sense of the pattern,
Erickson and Patrick Brett—a Wall Streeter
taking time off to pursue his academic
dreams—are trying to apply the techniques of
network analysis to search for key nodes in the
networks of connected causeways, canals,
mounds, and fields. The hope, he says, is “to
stop us from flailing around, trying to figure
out which of the thousands of islas we should
put a trench into.” Early analysis, Erickson
says, “shows a few key forest islands in control
of a vast network of communication and
interaction covering 550 square kilometers: as
large as many early states.”
Birthplace of crops
Even as archaeologists try to work out how the
area’s early inhabitants reshaped their physical
environment, botanists are beginning to trace
out their impacts in its genetic heritage. “The
Amazon is world-famous as a center for biodiversity,”
says botanist Charles R. Clement of
Brazil’s National Institute for Amazonian
Research in Manaus. “But its role in agricultural
biodiversity remains still too little
known.” In his view, the western Amazon was
a center for plant domestication—a “Vavilov
center,” as botanists call them, after pioneering
Soviet botanist Nikolai Vavilov, who
invented the concept.
Agricultural geneticists have long
accepted that the western Amazon was the
development ground for peanuts, Brazilian
broad beans (Canavalia plagiosperma), and
two species of chili pepper (Capsicum baccatum
and C. pubescens; see Science, 29 June
2007, p. 1830). But the list is much longer,
Hecht says. For example, she would add rubber,
made from the sap of Hevea brasiliensis.
Used for countless purposes by pre-
Columbian populations, “it is at least a semidomesticate,
and it was clearly distributed by
humans.” Also on her list are tobacco, cacao,
the tuber Xanthosoma sagittifolium, peach
palm (Bactris gasipaes, a major Amazonian
crop), and, most important, the worldwide
staple Manihot esculenta, better known as
manioc, cassava, or yuca.
Because the domestications of manioc
and peach palm apparently occurred before
Lake
Titicaca
P E R U
B R A Z I L
B O L I V I A
PANDO RONDÔNIA
THE BENI
ACRE
Tapajós River
Madeira River
Xingu River
CULTIVATED LANDSCAPES OF THE SOUTHWEST AMAZON
Paci f ic
Ocean
Atlantic
Ocean
Known geoglyphs
Canals, causeways
Raised fields
Modern political boundaries
“Garden cities”
Large mounds
Potential geoglyph area
50 100 150 km
0 50 100 150 mi
Ancient crossroads? Researchers suspect that prehistoric earthworks  
across the western Amazon may be related.
SOURCE: C. C. MANN
Published by AAAS
Downloaded from www.sciencemag.org on August 29, 2008
www.sciencemag.org SCIENCE VOL 321 29 AUGUST 2008 1151
the earthworks were built, agriculture may
have, as in other cultures, created the surplus
necessary for complex societies to emerge.
But a “note of caution” is appropriate in such
speculations, says anthropologist Peter Stahl
of Binghamton University in New York.
Although “tending to agree” that the region
was a center for domestication, he notes that
it’s possible that ancestral species still survive
in southwestern Amazonia “because it’s
out of the way” rather than because domestication
happened there.
Strikingly, one of the Amazon’s most
important agricultural innovations may have
originated soon after the breeding of modern
manioc and peach palm. Known as terra preta,
it consists of patches of soil ranging from less
than 1 hectare to several hectares that have been
modified by adding huge quantities of crumbled
charcoal (Science, 9 August 2002, p. 920).
An informal Brazil-Germany-U.S. collaboration
has been investigating this artificial soil,
which maintains its fertility for long periods
despite the harsh tropical conditions. Earlier
this year, five researchers led by Christoph
Steiner of the University of Bayreuth in Germany
reported that adding charcoal and soot to
weathered Amazonian soils caused a “sharp
increase” in microbial activity: Soils damaged
by exposure became, so to speak, more alive.
The Western Amazon’s “Garden Cities”
IN 1902, BRITISH PLANNER EBENEZER HOWARD PUBLISHED GARDEN
Cities of To-Morrow, which argued that the coming century’s cities— 
metropolises
ringed by bedroom communities—should be replaced by more livable,
medium-sized “garden cities,” linked by railroads and girdled by  
agricultural
green belts. Howard inspired planners in the United Kingdom and Germany,
but by the 1970s his views had been forgotten. Now, on page 1214, a  
U.S.-
Brazilian research team led by archaeologist Michael Heckenberger of the
University of Florida, Gainesville, reports finding a set of urban  
settlements
startlingly similar to Howard’s garden cities—built in the forests of  
the southcentral
Amazon as early as 1250 C.E.
The paper identifies dozens of densely packed “towns, villages, and
hamlets” covering perhaps 30,000 square kilometers—an area the size of
Belgium—in the headwaters of the Xingu River. The settlements, built by
indigenous peoples, were tied together by “well-planned road networks”
and embedded in a matrix of agricultural land. (By coincidence, the  
Xingu
complexes are also where famed British adventurer Percy Fawcett  
disappeared
in 1925 while searching for a mythical lost city known as “Z.”)
The new claims are sure to stir controversy. “Some urbanists may say,
‘In your dreams,’ ” Heckenberger says, laughing. But he argues that the
key comparison is not to big centralized cities such as Uruk or  
Athens, “but
the other thousand poleis [in ancient Greece] that were not Athens.”  
Like
them, he says, the Xingu polities “have sophisticated systems of  
regional
planning, a strongly hierarchical spatial organization, and a basic  
corehinterland
division within clearly marked territories.”
The new work “raises huge and important
questions,” says Susanna Hecht, an
Amazon specialist at the University of California,
Los Angeles. It further contradicts the
once-dominant view that the Amazonian
uplands and headwaters regions were nearly
empty. Indeed, the earthworks are similar
enough to the geoglyphs to the west in the
Beni (see main text), says geographer
William Denevan of the University of Wisconsin,
Madison, that “they must be related,
though we don’t know how.” Hecht also
notes that the Xingu settlements challenge
the implicit belief that “current urbanism
with its hyperconcentration is a kind of historical
norm,” when “smaller agglomerations
interacting with forest and agriculture”
may have been widespread, too.
Since the early 1990s, Heckenberger
has focused on the upper Xingu River, much
of which is a 2.6-million-hectare reserve set
aside for 14 indigenous groups, including
the Kuikuro, who number about 500. Two weeks after Heckenberger arrived,
community leader (and co-author of the Science paper) Afukaka Kuikuro
showed him the ruins of an earthen wall more than a kilometer long.
Heckenberger realized that the wall, which was associated with a  
moatlike
ditch 10 or more meters wide, was from before the time of Columbus.  
Then,
he says, “I found out the Kuikuro knew about a lot of these walled  
settlements,
and they weren’t small.”
Patiently converting indigenous knowledge into GPS-verified mapping
and archaeological excavation, Heckenberger’s team discovered that the
present-day Kuikuro forest concealed what had been two regional  
polities,
each about 250 square kilometers, comprised of small villages and  
towns centered
on plazas 120 to 150 meters across. Each polity had a kind of capital
with roads radiating out to other villages and towns. “The  
settlements are
packed in the region along the Xingu,” Heckenberger says, “one after
another, always in this highly regular pattern.” Each center has  
equidistant
towns to its north and south, for example, as well as smaller towns  
east and
west, with the two axes being of constant lengths. Similarly, the  
prehistoric
plazas in the towns are regularly patterned, with the primary and  
secondary
leaders’ houses facing each other at opposite ends. “All their roads  
are amazingly
straight, too,” Heckenberger says. “If there was a wetland, they just  
built
causeways and bridges over it.” In his view, this careful layout  
suggests that
the capitals had a ritualistic function.
To Heckenberger, the settlements represent a novel kind of urbanism. As
he readily agrees, “No single Xingu settlement merits the term  
‘city.’ But what
do you do with a core of five settlements a few kilometers away from  
each
other? Afast walk from one to another would take you 15 minutes,  
maximum.”
Radiocarbon dating suggests that these
communities were at their height from the
13th to the 16th centuries, with a regional
population greater than 50,000, based on
extrapolation from current settlements. Soon
after Europeans reached Brazil in 1500, diseases
killed two-thirds or more of the native
population, and forest quickly grew into
cleared areas; colonists later tended to
believe that the forest was of great antiquity.
These pre-Columbian urban concentrations
may have lessons for today’s planners.
“Given the complexity of Amazonian
biotic and water regimes, a decentralized
model may have been more adapted to
address very large volumes of water that
hang around for a long time,” Hecht says.
Because tropical areas today are dominated
by huge centralized cities, she says,
it is striking to note that their original
inhabitants chose a different path.
–C.C.M.
NEWSFOCUS
CREDIT: M. J. HECKENBERGER ET AL.
Digging in. Local Kuikuro
collaborators help excavate
an ancient earthwork.
Published by AAAS
Downloaded from www.sciencemag.org on August 29, 2008
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CREDIT: C. C. MANN
NEWSFOCUS
Terra preta is believed to have been an
essential part of a distinctive agricultural system.
According to the terra preta team, Indians
slowly cleared off the forest to create farm
plots and planted annual crops such as manioc
and peanut. In the past, researchers argued
that as the exposed soil lost its fertility, farmers
shifted to other areas in a pattern called
“slash and burn.” But researchers now suggest
that Indians instead took steps to retain soil
fertility by creating terra preta. According to
studies by Wisconsin’s Denevan, removing
trees with stone axes was so difficult that the
logical path for native peoples would not have
been to clear additional forest every few years
but to replant the enriched fallow earth with
tree species useful to humankind—rotating
annual and tree crops over time.
The oldest terra preta patches yet known,
carbon-dated to about 2500 B.C.E., are in
Rondônia, not far from the Brazil-Bolivia
border, suggesting to Eduardo Goes Neves of
the University of São Paolo that these techniques
may have been invented there. In surveys
this year and last, Neves discovered
“terra preta almost everywhere we looked.”
Pärssinen, though, says that the geoglyphs
team has not yet found big patches of terra
preta in Acre. “How these large groups supported
themselves there without it is a mystery,”
he says.
If the rest of the Rondônia terra preta is as
old as the dated patches, Neves says, “we’re
looking at a huge jigsaw puzzle” of an ancient
culture—or cultures. As he sees it, “in the
west and southwest, there’s the mounds and
canals, there’s the development of manioc
and peach palm, there’s the fish weirs that
Clark [Erickson] found—and we don’t know
how any of it fits together. On top of that,
there’s the geoglyphs all over the place.”
Digging deep
Around and atop many of the Beni forest
islands are deep ditches, commonly oval or
ring-shaped. Analogs of the geoglyphs
found by Ranzi in Acre, they are typically
100 to 200 meters across, though some are
as much as 1 km in diameter. Many are surprisingly
deep; Erickson and his Bolivian
co-investigator, Patricia Alvarez of the
Universidad Mayor de San Simón in
Cochabamba, discovered one ring originally
dug to 10 meters. The region is now overgrown,
so the team measures geoglyphs by
slowly chopping through trees and vines; during
Science’s visit, Erickson spent most of an
afternoon hacking with a machete through
thick forest to identify the track of a single big
ditch on a Global Positioning System.
Partly because of the recent tree cover,
nobody knows how many of these geoglyphs
exist. Erickson, for his part, says he “wouldn’t
be surprised if almost every one of the artificial
lomas had them.” Perhaps backing this
view, anthropologist John Walker of the University
of Central Florida in Orlando reports,
in a forthcoming paper, the discovery of
ditches on savannas and river-edge forests in
north-central Bolivia, in an area where they
had not previously been reported. “We found
ceramics on four forest islands that we examined,”
he told Science in an e-mail from
Bolivia, “and each of them also had earthworks
that I am willing to call ring ditches”—
circular geoglyphs.
The relation of the geoglyphs to the other,
often older, earthworks is unclear. “We have
one set of people constructing the zanjas
[ring ditches] and another set of people constructing
the causeways and canals,” Alvarez
says. “The question is whether they are the
same people.” In her view, the variegated
cultural landscape of the region probably
reflects “a patchwork of different ethnic
groups working in different areas” with constant,
intense “interethnic communication”—
a crowded, jumbled social landscape
that Alvarez believes extended for hundreds
of kilometers in every direction. The sphere
of intense interaction, she believes, may
have lasted for centuries.
Researchers think it likely that the geoglyphs
extend continuously between Acre
and the Beni; Pärssinen notes the recent discovery
of large geoglyphs near the city of
Riberalta, on the northernmost tip of the
Beni. But they cannot be sure, because
between Riberalta and Rio Branco, in Acre, is
about 150 km of the mostly forested department
of Pando. “It seems unlikely there is no
connection, but any connection is not yet
proven,” Schaan says.
Nor is it known whether the geoglyphs
served any practical function. Most of the Acre
geoglyphs are on higher ground, making them
of little use for drainage. Many have outer
walls that look down on the central area, suggesting
that they were not used for defense. To
be sure, one of Walker’s earthworks was connected
to a river “by a deep channel and had a
connection to a swamp on the other side,” he
says. “It could have been used to control water
flow off of the savanna in the dry season. So at
least some of these earthworks could have had
a hydraulic function.” Many, though, are
almost entirely without other traces of human
presence, such as ceramics. “The immediate
response is that they were symbolic places,”
says Stahl. “But that’s the old archaeological
canard: If you can’t figure out the function of
something, you say it was for ritual.”
The late arrival and ubiquity of the geoglyphs
may indicate that some type of cultural
movement swept over earlier social
arrangements. “But whatever was there, these
societies have been completely forgotten,”
says anthropologist Guillermo Rioja, director
of sustainable development and indigenous
peoples for the Pando. “It’s only been
400 years since they vanished. Why does
nobody here know anything about them?
They were living here for such a long time,
and nobody knows who they were.”
One reason for the lack of attention, in
his view, is archaeology’s long focus on
Andean societies of Peru and Bolivia, with
their grand stone ruins. “The idea is that the
tribes in the lowlands were living like animals
in the wild,” Rioja says. “When you tell
them that there were great, important civilizations
here in the western Amazon, they
don’t believe it. But it’s true.”
–CHARLES C. MANN
Walking on water. Early
Amazonians built causeways
to adjust to annual floods.
Published by AAAS
Downloaded from www.sciencemag.org on August 29, 2008