The Palenque Mapping Project: 1999 Field Season Report

This report covers the results of the 1999 survey of Palenque’s western region, an area stretching from the Motiepa River to the structures around the Picota River (Map 1). Discussions of Palenque’s central region, between the Motiepa and Otulum Rivers, can be found in the PMP 1998 Report. A total of 635 structures were encountered during the survey. Added to the 1998 total of 403, a grand total of 1038 structures have now been documented and placed on the map. Compared to the 107 structures recorded to the west of the Motiepa River on M.G. Robertson’s map (1983), a total of 528 structures are presented for the first time in this report. The majority of Palenque’s western settlement was built upon a flat, east-west running plateau, the same plateau utilized by the structures of Palenque’s central precinct. Further settlement extends above and below the plateau, built upon platforms and massive terraces protruding from the hillsides. The areas around the Motiepa, Piedras Bolas and Picota Rivers are densely covered with small residential structures. All three rivers contain evidence of water management architecture. Furthest west, around the Picota River, the constructions are larger and appear to be public spaces. Features including the Olvidado Temple, two temples directly to the west of the Olvidado, the Picota Complex (plaza, aqueduct and stela), and the newly documented Escondido Platform combine to create the impression that a second "center" existed at Palenque. This newly recognized "center" and the residential areas between it and Palenque’s primary center will be discussed in the sections that follow.

Methodology

Survey/Mapping

The survey methodology was designed to achieve 100% coverage of the project area. Computer software allowed the survey crew to have daily-generated maps of what they covered and which areas needed further documentation. Water-resistant notebooks were used to record the data and accompanying field sketches. The survey instrument, a GTS-211D total station on loan from the Topcon Corporation, records data points by bouncing light off a movable prism. The prism is placed in a desired location and the instrument records its position in reference to its own. Locations where the instrument was set up were given individual station numbers and marked with five-inch steel nails. Each new station was established by sighting it from the prior station. The crew moved the instrument in loops of stations, regularly returning to previously established locations in order to monitor and control the accumulation of error.

The data entered from the survey was recorded as three-dimensional points, one for each shot taken in the field. Those 3-D points were then manipulated in Foresight, a professional survey software package, to create a map of contour lines and structure footprints. This process allowed the map to be field checked as it was generated, ensuring accuracy and completeness. At the conclusion of the season, the Foresight file was transferred to AutoCAD, computer aided drafting software, and combined with digital architectural drawings to create the final maps.

The coordinate grid begun in the 1998 season was expanded as the survey continued out. The grid’s point of origin, designated 8000N, 8000E, is located on the west side of the Temple of the Cross. Its location was chosen to link with a small grid of benchmarks placed in the Cross Group by INAH archaeologist Rosalva Nieto in the 1980’s. New benchmarks have been and will continue to be placed in outlying groups as an aid to future investigations at Palenque.

Structure Designation

Each structure encountered during survey must be given a designation. In the case of Palenque, this presents a methodological problem. The major structures of the site already have designations, mostly roman numeral. The groups of the periphery, however, were named during different projects resulting in a mixing of designation systems. Some groups have received more than one designation, creating confusion in the literature. The task of the PMP is to use a designation system that does not require changing existing names and at the same time builds upon an existing system. It was decided that going with the oldest, most expansive designation system is the best solution. The first project to map Palenque’s periphery was in the 1920’s, conducted by Franz Blom. His system was to identify peripheral structures by group, giving each group an alphabetic designation. Eventually, they became known as Blom’s Groups A through J.  The PMP chose to build from the Blom’s Group system, designating each structure with a letter reflecting its group affiliation and a number individualizing it within the group. For outer groups that neither Blom nor Robertson clearly identified, new group names were assigned.

Discussions by Group

In keeping with the designation system begun by Blom in the 1920’s, areas of Palenque’s western region have been divided into groups. A map outlining the group boundaries defined by the PMP appears in Map 2. The process of establishing group boundaries was made difficult by the extremely dense settlement pattern encountered. As a general rule, rivers and arroyos were used as group boundaries. Some boundaries were established along monumental terrace faces. In a few cases (i.e. Group J West and the Piedras Bolas Group) modern trails and roads were used as boundaries. While not an ideal system of sub-division, the groupings presented in this report were considered the best solution to the issue of previous publication compatibility.

The next sections will discuss the western groups individually and the following questions will be addressed for each. What kind of topography was the group built upon? How many structures, courtyards and terraces were documented? Is there surface evidence of water management? Where is the exposed architecture located? Have any structures been looted? Features and structures of special character will be discussed individually. Dimensions for each structure encountered during the 1999 survey appear in Table 1.

Group J West (Map 3)

Group J West was clearly part of Group J but has now been physically separated from it by the road to the ruins parking lot. The road cuts off two large structures, JO12 and JO26, and four east-west running terraces. The group sits upon land sloping gently down to the north. There are a total of forty-three structures, ten courtyards and seven terraces in Group J West. Exposed architecture exists within structures JO7, 12, 20, 22, 26, and 33.  No looting evidence was found. The southernmost terrace (connected to structures JO1-4) is part of a series of interconnected terraces running almost 300m from the site center all the way to the Motiepa River. Only two structures, JO26 and JO28, are strongly suspected as being non-residential in function. Their form and size are more suggestive of the lineage ancestor worship shrines commonly found in association with residential courtyard groups.

There are two locations of water management evidence in Group J West. The first is an arroyo originating next to JO35, suggesting construction around a seasonally active spring. The second is the arroyo at the group’s southern end which drops off a terrace, passes through architecture without destroying it and which seems to feed a diversion pool inside the elbow of a "L" shaped terrace extension. Structure JO12, now cut by the modern road, seems to have once been connected to structure J1, the Group IV residence of Chac Zutz’, the K’ak’ Ahaw of one of Palenque’s last kings, Akal Mo’ Nab.

The Motiepa East Group (Map 3)

The Motiepa East Group is situated on two natural plateaus stepping down to the north above the Motiepa’s eastern bank. Many of its structures have an unobstructed view of the Motiepa cascades. The group is quite small, only twelve structures arranged around two irregularly shaped patios. No constructed terracing was detected. The architecture is small and low-lying, assumably all residential. No exposed architecture was found and only one looter’s pit, in ME1.  While no clear water management evidence was found, the three arroyos that join within the group seem to have been redirected. Artificial leveling done during the construction of the close by modern road may have affected the course of the easternmost of those arroyos, further confusing the surface evidence. To the south of the Motiepa East Group, situated on top of a large limestone outcrop, sits a ruined modern structure. A staircase carved into the outcrop’s face quite near the path provides access to the structure. Through discussions with long time Palenque resident Moises Morales it was learned that a German woman named Herta had once owned the structure. Herta lived in Palenque during the 1950’s and used the structure as a restaurant and bar. It is now little more than a cement platform and some crumbling red brick walls.

The Motiepa Group (Map 4)

The Motiepa Group is arranged on the hillside from Palenque’s main plateau down to the edge of the flood plains. Topography that appears to be an approximately twenty meter wide, dried watercourse runs down through the middle of the group. Calcified ledges stepping down the hillside, much like those in the Motiepa and Otulum cascades, are the evidence that water once flowed through the area in large quantity. There are forty-five structures and ten residential courtyards. Exposed architecture exists on the surfaces of structures M2, 11 and 13.  In addition, a subterranean chamber of unknown character was detected in between structures M42 and M41.  Looters have dug two separate pits into structure M2, one revealing an entrance into an intact inner chamber. While no water management features were securely identified, the aforementioned dried watercourse running through the Motiepa Group seems controlled in its placement. While surveying at the top of the dried watercourse, just below structure M10, the team noticed many bats flying around in the middle of the day. As bats are nocturnal, the presence of a cave or underground opening was suspected to be nearby. Though none was found, the possibility that it exists is still quite high. An extinct spring emerging from a cave would neatly explain the presence of the dried watercourse.

Moises’ Retreat (Map 5)

This group was named after Don Moises Morales, long-time advocate of the ruins and Palenque’s most knowledgeable tour guide. The editors of Robertson’s 1983 map gave the group its name. Though originally identified as the group’s central large complex (the platform unifying structures MR21, 24, 32 and 33) the PMP has expanded its definition to include the surrounding smaller structures as well. Moises’ Retreat sits upon almost completely flat land and commands a beautiful view of the plains below. There are sixty structures in the group and nineteen small courtyards. Tall terraces bound the group to the north and south, architecturally separating it from the G and Xinil Pa’ Groups. Within the group there are three low-lying terraces in its eastern section. The central complex (comprised of structures MR21, 24, 32 and 33) sits upon a single large platform containing subterranean architecture. Much of the complex has exposed architecture, allowing interior investigation. Project members Jim Eckhardt and Heather Hurst crawled inside each subterranean chamber and passageway in order to record dimensions and descriptions. The long dark corridors encountered inside are reminiscent of those underneath Palenque’s central Palace. Elsewhere in the group, exposed architecture was found on the surfaces of structures MR4, 5, 8, 25, 26 and 28.  MR4, in particular, is in a very good state of preservation. In addition, intact walls were found along the face of Moises’ Retreat’s northern terrace, held in place by calcification. A small tomb chamber has collapsed in, revealing its internal architecture two meters to the east of structure MR28.  Evidence of looting was recorded in structures MR21, 24, 26, 32 and on the platform directly north of MR34.

Two separate areas of water management were detected within Moises’ Retreat. The smaller of the two is a seasonally flowing spring two meters to the east of structure MR22.  The terrace there appears to have been intentionally in-set to provide an architectural opening from which the spring could flow downhill in a controlled fashion. The second, larger area of water management is located to the west of the group’s main complex and flows out of the nearby Piedras Bolas. There are two tributaries that appear to have been redirected to flow in between structures, one in between MR25 and 26 and the other in between MR26 and 27. Both join together just before dropping off into a small ravine which curves to rejoin the Piedras Bolas downstream. Sporadic areas of wet and dry along the courses of the tributaries indicate water is seeping under the patio they cross, likely re-emerging from a spring detected at the base of the ravine. This area is one of the best examples of Palenque’s architecture harmonizing with its natural setting.

Group G (Map 4)

Group G, also called "Blom’s Group G", was one of the locations identified during the 1920’s expedition of Franz Blom. As with most of Blom’s identified groups, his attention was given to the group due to its accessible tombs. While Blom’s drawing of Group G (1927) identified only two structures, the PMP map identifies twenty structures and five small courtyards. One large platform, structure G12, forms the step down in between Group G’s two flat areas. Structures G3, 6, 12 and 17 have exposed architecture.  G17’s visible architecture is accessed through a hole in its half-meter tall platform and appears to be a pair of small tomb chambers.  G3, recorded first by Blom, is a two meters tall structure with a collapse hole in its top. The structure’s interior is still in good condition with stucco on the walls and two intact doorways (one sealed up).

The wide plateau below and to the north of Group G is an area of unique character. Though it is a flat, upland plateau, ideal for residential construction, the land is completely empty of buildings. The 1983 Robertson map identifies it as a "1968 milpa". The area’s north end drops sharply off an approximately ten-meter tall limestone cliff. The face of that cliff is highly eroded and calcified, indicating prolonged exposure to flowing water. This water run-off evidence combined with the plateau’s oddly empty state, lead the survey team to suspect it may have been a small, inner-city milpa. Unfortunately, its use as a milpa in modern times may have precluded phosphate soil testing to confirm or deny its ancient identity.

The Xinil Pa’ Group (Map 6)

The Xinil Pa’ group is a densely arranged group of structures climbing up hill in between the Piedras Bolas and Motiepa Rivers. A series of eight terraces step forty-two meters up the hillside creating flat surfaces for Xinil Pa’s seventy-eight structures and fifteen small courtyards. The two largest structures in Xinil Pa’, XP1 and 2, are located at its northernmost edge, bordering Moises’ Retreat.  XP1 is the largest and has an associated altar-like feature on its eastern side patio.  XP2 flanks the Piedras Bolas and has an almost completely intact western wall. The southern section of the Xinil Pa’ group, containing the highest density of structures, may be the area of Robertson’s map named the "Great House Group". Location discrepancies make map comparisons less than clear. Considering the interconnected nature of the construction as it climbs up the hillside, the entire area was included under the Xinil Pa’ Group name. Robertson’s map also records a large structure named "Bates Pyramid". Though map comparison was again unclear, structure XP36 appears to be the most likely candidate for Bates Pyramid.

Inaccessibility and many small structures arranged around private courtyards give the area a highly residential character. Eleven structures in the Xinil Pa’ Group have exposed architecture, including structures XP2, 3, 13, 18, 31, 33, 35, 43, 55, 69 and 72.  Looter’s pits were found in only two structures, XP 40 and 54.  Water management evidence in the Xinil Pa’ Group is concentrated around the Piedras Bolas River. Drain-like features are visible in the river’s bank west of structures XP13 and 30.  Large amounts of cut stone lie strewn around in the Piedras Bolas River from structure XP12 down to Moises’ Retreat structure MR61.  On the opposite side of the group, the dry arroyo between structures XP40 and 43 feeds down into the Motiepa River without cutting into the surrounding architecture, suggesting at minimum that its course was accounted for during construction, if not created by the construction. Lastly, a word on the Xinil Pa’ terraces. At their great size and the fact that they are the platforms for most of the group’s residential courtyards, they seem to be evidence of a large communal labor force.

The Piedras Bolas Group (Map 7)

Like the nearby Xinil Pa’ Group, the Piedras Bolas Group climbs up the hillside partially using four wide terraces as leveled building surfaces. The group runs primarily along the western bank of the Piedras Bolas River, hence its given name. There are sixty-seven structures and twelve small courtyards contained within the group. None of the structures appear obviously non-residential. Exposed architecture was documented on structures PB1, 7, 9, 15, 18, 31, 32, 39 and 48.  Looter’s pits were found in only three structures, PB1, 15 and 35.  The southernmost structures of the Piedras Bolas Group are built into a steep hillside as long, narrow platforms. Above those platforms the hill rises another twenty-five meters to a flat, natural plateau (not yet documented on the PMP map). Though the plateau was reconnaissance for a full day, no structures were found. The plateau did, however, contain three interesting pits, ten meters in average diameter and one to two meters in depth, with large limestone chunks scattered around their edges. Their form suggests quarry pits. Given that no structures were encountered on the plateau, the decision was made to hold off on formally surveying the area and to spend the team’s limited time in the areas of settlement below.

One of Palenque’s more interesting water management features was documented in the northwest part of the Piedras Bolas Group. Structure PB7 has a pool connected to its southern side. The pool is walled on all four sides and has a spring welling up from its southwest corner. The pool drains by a conduit traveling underneath structure PB7.  The water flows out of the structure’s north side, travels under an arroyo level stone-covered channel (2m in length) and then winds eastward to join the Piedras Bolas. At that point of the Piedras Bolas’ course most of its water is being fed into it via this small arroyo. The pool at the arroyo’s origin still functions to collect water from the spring that it was built around.

The Olvidado Group (Map 7)

The Olvidado Group is a small group of structures arranged around the well-known Olvidado Temple. The Olvidado Temple was first recorded by Blom in the 1920’s and excavated by Berlin in the 1940’s. Including the Olvidado Temple, there are ten structures and four wide platforms in the group. Thirty meters to the east of the Olvidado Temple lies a large platform identified by Blom as "Group I." The Group I platform was built into the hillside and has two small structures on top. The eastern of those two structures, O1, has a collapse hole on its top revealing a chamber some two meters down, inside the large platform. Blom’s report (1926) records a burial chamber was found there.

Generally speaking, the Olvidado Group does not appear to be residential. The Group I platform and the Olvidado Temple seem too visible to have functioned as private quarters. The smaller associated structures, especially the low terraces, seem to be supporting architecture rather than private spaces. None of the patios or courtyards typically associated with residential activities were found in the Olvidado Group. The next section, discussing the Picota Group, will discuss a connection between the Olvidado and Picota Groups.

The Picota Group (Map 8)

The Picota Group includes a diverse collection of structures, both public and residential. Its boundaries, with the exception of its western section, were drawn by the use of watercourses as borders. There are a total of sixty-seven structures and eight small courtyards within the Picota Group. Exposed architecture exists on the surfaces of structures P3, 5, 12, 26, 37 and 61.  No looter’s pits were found in direct contact with the structures of the Picota Group but one pit was dug into the terrace directly in front of structure P37.

The structures and features encountered within the group differed from those recorded in previous maps to such an extent that, besides the Picota’s stela and aqueduct, the PMP map presents entirely new information.

The heart of the Picota Group is the irregularly shaped Picota Plaza. The irregular shape is caused by the protrusion of structures P23, 24 and 25 into the plaza, creating two distinct sections of plaza space. The western part of the plaza contains the La Picota Stela (the feature for which the area is named), the Picota aqueduct, and a well-preserved staircase climbing nine steps up from its southern boundary. Towering above the Picota Plaza to the south are a series of three terraces topped by structure P14 and its associated courtyard group. Structure P12, located five meters to the southeast of P14 has an area of collapse in its top revealing a subterranean tomb chamber below.

In form and geographic placement, the line of temple-like structures running from the structure P14 eastward to the Group I platform are reminiscent of the line of structures in Palenque’s primary center created by Temples XII, XIII and the Inscriptions. Both areas have temples built into the hillside overlooking a plaza. Acknowledging that XII, XIII and the Inscriptions are funerary monuments, a similar function is suspected for these southern temples of the Picota Group. Collectively, the presence of a large plaza, a stela, an elaborate aqueduct and a line of funerary temples along the south edge give the Picota area a distinctly "central precinct" character. The large nearby structure designated the Escondido Platform further supports that conclusion. Palenque appears to have had not one, but two "centers".

The Picota Group’s northern section is more residential in character, comprised of smaller buildings arranged around courtyards and open patio spaces. Though included spatially as part of the Picota Group, this area of residential settlement also seems associated with the Lemon Group’s settlement just to the east.

The water management of the Picota Group is arguably Palenque’s most sophisticated example. The aqueduct is built of tightly fitted stones and fed by multiple springs. Its state of preservation is superior to that of the aqueduct in Palenque’s central precinct. With the exception of a few capstones that have fallen in, the Picota aqueduct is completely intact and functional. As the water spills from the aqueduct’s exit, it forms the watercourse known as the Picota River. The course of this river turns sharply to the east, passing through the Lemon and Nauyaka residential zones, and ultimately joining the Piedras Bolas River via a wide area of shallow cascades. The fact that the Picota, unlike Palenque’s other rivers, does not follow gravity and flow straight north towards the floodplains below strongly suggests its course was altered to flow through the residential areas.

The Lemon Group (Map 9)

The Lemon Group sits on almost completely flat land along the southern side of the Picota River. The vegetation surrounding the group is extremely dense as a result of its former use as cattleland. The group’s name comes from the presence of many lemon (not lime) trees sporadically found within its boundaries. Since they are not indigenous to the area it is assumed they were planted by the former landowner. The groups named Hochol Bi’ and Atotob in the Robertson map could not be clearly identified but were probably found within what is now defined the Lemon Group. There are eighty structures and fifteen residential courtyards within the group, most of which were built along the southern bank of the Picota River. The majority of the group’s structures are small and tightly clustered. Architecture exposed at the surface was documented on structures L4 and 7.  The single looter’s pit of the Lemon Group is located one meter north of structure L10.  The group’s largest structure, L67, was found less than ten meters from the main footpath through the area. Though the structure is over four meters in height and thirty meters long, the dense vegetation covering it had completely hidden it from view. Unlike other groups found in Palenque’s western region, the Lemon Group appears to have a large open plaza in its center, linking all the individual courtyard groups to one communal space. There seems to have been a communal agreement to leave the area free of buildings.

The Nauyaka Group (Map 9)

Except for its very northern end, the Nauyaka Group sits on flat land. It is bounded on the south by the Picota River and on the north by a steep hillside, as yet unrecorded by the PMP.  Like the Lemon Group, many of its structures line the Picota River. The inspiration for the group’s name came from the large number of poisonous snakes encountered within its boundaries, five in the course of two weeks. Nauyaka is the local name for the snake more commonly called the Fer-de-Lance. A total of seventy-four structures and seventeen courtyards were found within the Nauyaka Group. In a pattern not seen in other sections of Palenque, most of the residential groups in this area are connected by elevated platforms. The looting evidence in the Nauyaka Group is by far the worst the PMP has encountered in Palenque. A total of eighteen looter’s pits were found, primarily in the groups on elevated platforms. Looted structures include structures N26, 29, 43, 45, 46, 47, 65 and 70.  The very thick vegetation of the area combined with the noise of nearby rushing water made it a perfect area for clandestine looting. Evidence around the pits in structure N25 indicates the looting is relatively recent. Coke cans, chip bags and cigarette packs were found lying about still in good condition, as yet unaffected by the fast acting elements of a rain forest environment.

Structure N70 has an uniquely triangular form. A terrace on the other side of the Picota also has a side of odd orientation, mirroring N70’s riverside wall. The two structures together seem to bracket the Picota’s end as it falls into the Piedras Bolas River. Sitting in the Picota River next to structure N11 lies an interesting water management feature of indeterminate function. Though partially destroyed, it appears to be similar to the feature in the Motiepa River next to the Encantado Temple. It is a stone slab constructed box that has openings on either side through which water can pass. The similar Motiepa example was loosely termed an aqueduct in the Robertson map.

The Escondido Group (Map 10)

The Escondido Group is arranged around a massive platform presented for the first time in this report. The name "Escondido" was chosen to denote the platform’s amazingly hidden status until now. Most of the group’s sixty structures, though associated with the Escondido Platform, are arranged around residential-type courtyards. Almost all structures on its east side are arranged in small courtyard groups. Looter’s pits were encountered in structures ED15, 37, 38 and 46.  Exposed architecture exists on structures ED15, 36 and 57.  The Escondido Group as a whole was built on flat ground with a commanding northern view of the plains below. The view from the Escondido Platform is one of the most far reaching in all of Palenque.

The Escondido Platform itself measures 80x140m at its base, making it slightly larger than Palenque’s Palace (Figure 1). Though no surface evidence indicates entrances into the platform itself, Palenque’s predilection towards subterranean chambers suggests the presence of internal rooms and passageways. The structures encountered on top of the Escondido Platform are humble and arranged much in the way of typical residential patio groups. Structure ED15 is the largest structure on top of the platform. It is "L" shaped and has a stone feature on top that appears most like a destroyed bench. A partially intact stairway steps down off ED15’s eastern side patio. Lower platforms supporting smaller structures extend off the Escondido’s north, south and east sides. To the west is an arroyo and cleared, presently inhabited hills. To the north, platforms step downhill twice before ending at the edge of a shear cliff dropping off over fifty meters to the plains below. The southern platform is a single construction with eight small structures on top. The majority of the structures in the Escondido Group lie to the east of the large platform.

The modern structure located off the southwest corner of the Escondido Platform was built on the property of Don Heber, a INAH employed guard of the ruins. The structure is the home of the land’s caretakers, a man named Cristóbal and his family. Don Heber also owns the milpa growing on top of the Escondido Platform.

Summation

There were two major changes made to our understanding of Palenque as a result of the PMP 1999 field season. One, we now know Palenque’s western section is dominated by a densely clustered residential zone, and two, a second "center" exists within the city’s boundaries. Bounded on both the east and west by areas of large, public architecture, Palenque’s western residential settlement is "urban" by definition. The "center" on Palenque’s western edge is suspected of being older than the city’s much larger primary center for the following reasons. First, the ceramic sequence defined by Dr. Robert Rands has identified specimens from the Picota area as some of the oldest at the site (p.c.). Second, data points collected in the Picota Plaza were found to be less than 50cm (on average) in elevation difference from those recorded in the plaza surrounding Palenque’s Palace. The central complex of Moises’ Retreat, though located along the same central plateau as the two big plazas, sits at an elevation seventeen meters lower. If the identical elevation of the two, almost one kilometer apart plazas is not a coincidence then one must have patterned itself upon the other. Two facts combine to point to the central plaza as the emulator. One, the Picota Plaza slopes very gently down to the river that defines its northern boundary. Since the river is shallow and at essentially plaza level we can assume the Picota Plaza was neither built up nor dug down to any large extent. In contrast, Palenque’s central plaza sits upon a terrace, built up as much as four meters in places. Clearly, if one plaza emulated the other, the smaller Picota Plaza was the original.

The discovery of this second center at Palenque leads to a hypothesis with potential to answer a growing question regarding the members of Palenque’s early royal lineage. Despite decades of excavation in Palenque’s central precinct archaeologists have found little evidence of royal family activities earlier than the time of Pakal. The exceptions, the XVIIIa tomb (Berlin, 1943) and the Reyna Roja (Gonzalez Cruz, 1998), are still under debate as to the antiquity of their time periods. David Stuart has read Palenque hieroglyphic texts referring to a place named "Tok Tan" as the origin place of the Palenque lineage, a place he believes to be separate from the primary center (p.c.). Could the Picota Plaza be the center of the dynasty’s original family members? Its size, suspected age, and obvious association with the site’s residential community make it a possibility worthy of further archaeological investigation.

Sources Cited

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